Food security is another area in which biotechnology
offers major inputs for healthier and more
nutritious food. Millions of people are malnourished,
and Vitamin A deficiency affects 40 million
children. There are also serious deficiencies
of iodine, iron, and other nutrients. A recent
UNICEF report on food and nutrition deficiencies
in children describes this as a “silent, invisible
emergency with no outward sign of a
problem.” Every year over 6 million children
under the age of 5 die worldwide. About 2.7 million
of these children die in India. More than half
of these deaths result from inadequate nutrition.
With the advent of gene transfer technology
and its use in crops, we hope to achieve higher
productivity and better quality, including improved
nutrition and storage properties. We also
hope to ensure adaptation of plants to specific
environmental conditions, to increase plant tolerance
to stress conditions, to increase pest and
disease resistance, and to achieve higher prices
in the marketplace. Genetically improved foods
will have to be developed under adequate regulatory
processes, with full public understanding.
We should ensure the safety and proper labeling
of the genetically improved foods, so consumers
will have a choice.
It is scientifically well established that an environmentally
benign way of ensuring food security
is through bioengineering of crops. For the
4.6 billion people in developing countries, one
billion do not get enough to eat and live in poverty.
Is there any other strategy or alternative?
Biotechnology will provide the new tools to
breeders to enhance plant capacity. Since we
know that 12 percent of the world land is under
agricultural crops, it is projected that the per
capita availability may be reduced from 2.06 hectares
to 0.15 hectare by 2050.
Showing posts with label History. Show all posts
Showing posts with label History. Show all posts
Sunday, June 6, 2010
Agriculture and Allied Areas
The post Green Revolution era is almost merging
with the gene revolution for improving crop
productivity and quality. The exploitation of heterosis
vigor and development of new hybrids
including apomixis, genes for abiotic and biotic
resistance, and developing planting material with
desirable traits and genetic enhancement of all
important crops will dominate the research
agenda in the next century. Integrated nutrient
management and development of new biofertilizers
and biopesticides would be important from
the view- point of sustainable agriculture, soil
fertility, and a clean environment. Stress biology,
marker-assisted breeding programs, and studying
the important genes will continue as priorities.
We will have to switch to organic farming
practices, with greater use of biological software
on a large scale.
In India we have achieved the cloning and sequencing
of at least six genes, developed regeneration
protocols for citrus, coffee, mangrove
species, and new types of biofertilizer and
biopesticide formulations, including mycorrhizal
fertilizers. Research to develop new genetically
improved (transgenic) plants for brassicas, mung
bean, cotton, and potato is well advanced. Industries
have also shown a keen interest in the options
of biotechnology and are participating in
field trials and pilot level productions. The successful
tissue culture pilot plants in the country,
one at TERI in New Delhi and the other at NCL
in Pune are now functioning as Micropropagation
Technology Parks. This has given a new direction
to the plant tissue culture industry. The
micropropagation parks serve as a platform for
effective transfer of technology to entrepreneurs,
including training and the demonstration of technology
for mass multiplication of horticulture and
trees. Considerable progress has been made with
cardamom and vanilla, both important crops.
Yield of cardamom has increased 40 percent using
tissue-cultured plants.
Between 1996 and 1998, in just eight countries,
the area covered by new genetically improved
transgenic plants (from 16.8 to 27.8 million hectares)
(James 1998). Some of the main crops grown
are soybean, corn, canola, cotton, and potato. The
United States, Argentina, Brazil, and China have
moved ahead quickly. The new plants exhibited
herbicide, insect, and viral resistance, and overall
improvement in product quality.
While the Green Revolution gave us self-reliance
in food, the livestock population has provided
a “White Revolution,” with 80 percent of
the milk in India coming from small and marginal
farms. This has had a major social impact.
A diverse infrastructure has been established to
help farmers in the application of embryo transfer
technology. The world’s first IVF buffalo calf
(PRATHAM) was born through embryo transfer
technology at the National Dairy Research Institute,
Karnal. Multiple ovulation and embryo
transfer, in vitro embryo production, embryo sexing,
vaccines and diagnostic kits for animal health
have also been developed. Waste recycling technologies
that are cost effective and environmentally
safe, are being generated. The animal science
area is also opening up many avenues for employment
generation.
With a coastline of more than 8,000 kilometers,
and two island territories of Andaman and
Nicobar and Lakshadweep, there is great potential
for marine resource development and aquaculture.
To achieve an annual target production
of 10 million metric tons of fish, scientific aquaculture
offers great possibilities. In fact, aquaculture
improve seed production, feed, health
products, cryopreservation, genetic studies, and
related environmental factors. This is an area
India: Biotechnology Research and Development 53
which will help substantially in the diversification
of the breadbasket, and in combating nutritional
deficiency.
with the gene revolution for improving crop
productivity and quality. The exploitation of heterosis
vigor and development of new hybrids
including apomixis, genes for abiotic and biotic
resistance, and developing planting material with
desirable traits and genetic enhancement of all
important crops will dominate the research
agenda in the next century. Integrated nutrient
management and development of new biofertilizers
and biopesticides would be important from
the view- point of sustainable agriculture, soil
fertility, and a clean environment. Stress biology,
marker-assisted breeding programs, and studying
the important genes will continue as priorities.
We will have to switch to organic farming
practices, with greater use of biological software
on a large scale.
In India we have achieved the cloning and sequencing
of at least six genes, developed regeneration
protocols for citrus, coffee, mangrove
species, and new types of biofertilizer and
biopesticide formulations, including mycorrhizal
fertilizers. Research to develop new genetically
improved (transgenic) plants for brassicas, mung
bean, cotton, and potato is well advanced. Industries
have also shown a keen interest in the options
of biotechnology and are participating in
field trials and pilot level productions. The successful
tissue culture pilot plants in the country,
one at TERI in New Delhi and the other at NCL
in Pune are now functioning as Micropropagation
Technology Parks. This has given a new direction
to the plant tissue culture industry. The
micropropagation parks serve as a platform for
effective transfer of technology to entrepreneurs,
including training and the demonstration of technology
for mass multiplication of horticulture and
trees. Considerable progress has been made with
cardamom and vanilla, both important crops.
Yield of cardamom has increased 40 percent using
tissue-cultured plants.
Between 1996 and 1998, in just eight countries,
the area covered by new genetically improved
transgenic plants (from 16.8 to 27.8 million hectares)
(James 1998). Some of the main crops grown
are soybean, corn, canola, cotton, and potato. The
United States, Argentina, Brazil, and China have
moved ahead quickly. The new plants exhibited
herbicide, insect, and viral resistance, and overall
improvement in product quality.
While the Green Revolution gave us self-reliance
in food, the livestock population has provided
a “White Revolution,” with 80 percent of
the milk in India coming from small and marginal
farms. This has had a major social impact.
A diverse infrastructure has been established to
help farmers in the application of embryo transfer
technology. The world’s first IVF buffalo calf
(PRATHAM) was born through embryo transfer
technology at the National Dairy Research Institute,
Karnal. Multiple ovulation and embryo
transfer, in vitro embryo production, embryo sexing,
vaccines and diagnostic kits for animal health
have also been developed. Waste recycling technologies
that are cost effective and environmentally
safe, are being generated. The animal science
area is also opening up many avenues for employment
generation.
With a coastline of more than 8,000 kilometers,
and two island territories of Andaman and
Nicobar and Lakshadweep, there is great potential
for marine resource development and aquaculture.
To achieve an annual target production
of 10 million metric tons of fish, scientific aquaculture
offers great possibilities. In fact, aquaculture
products are among the fastest moving
commodities in the world. We have to continuouslyimprove seed production, feed, health
products, cryopreservation, genetic studies, and
related environmental factors. This is an area
India: Biotechnology Research and Development 53
which will help substantially in the diversification
of the breadbasket, and in combating nutritional
deficiency.
Basic Research
Biotechnology has transformed many parts
of the chemical industry, agriculture, and
medicine. This area of science has little demarcation
between basic and applied research,
and new discoveries and innovations, in most
cases, can find direct application. Innovations,
techniques, and tools that have emerged and
revolutionized modern biotechnology include
genetic engineering, cell fusion technology,
bioprocess technologies, and structure-based
molecular designs including drug development,
drug targeting, and drug delivery systems.
In the 1980s the Government of India considered
the need for creating a separate institutional
framework to strengthen biology and biotechnology
research in the country. Scientific agencies
supporting research in modern biology included:
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR), Department of Science and Technology,
and University Grants Commission. Biotechnology
was given an important boost in 1982 with
the establishment of the National Biotechnology
Board. Its priorities were human resource development,
creation of infrastructure facilities, and
supporting research and development (R&D) in
specific areas. The success and impact of the National
Biotechnology Board prompted the Government
to establish a separate Department of
Biotechnology (DBT) in February 1986. There
have been major accomplishments in areas of
basic research in agriculture, health, environment,
human resource development, industry, safety,
and ethical issues.
Basic research is essential on all aspects of modern
biology including development of the tools
to identify, isolate, and manipulate the individual
genes that govern the specific characters in plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Recombinant DNA
(rDNA) technology is the basis for these new developments.
The creativity of the scientists and
the basic curiosity-driven research will be the keys
to future success. India led through the work of
G.N. Ramachandran, in which he elucidated the
triple helical structure of collagen. The Ramachandran
plot has proven to be fundamental in
solving the protein structure. Areas of biosystematics
using molecular approaches, mathematical
modeling, and genetics including genome sequencing
for human beings, animals, and plants,
will continue to have priority as we move into
the next century. The tremendous impact of genome
sequencing is increasingly evident in many
fields. As an increasing number of new genes are
discovered, short, unique, expressed sequenced
tags segments are used as signatures for gene
identification. The power of high throughput sequencing,
together with rapidly accumulating sequenced
data, are opening new avenues in
biosciences.
In the plant genome area, the sequencing of
Arabidopsis and rice genome will soon be completed
and cataloging and mapping of all the
genes will be done.
There have been major achievements in basic
bioscience in the last decade or so in India, where
we have expertise in practically all areas of mod-
India: Biotechnology Research and Development
Manju Sharma
52 Agricultural Biotechnology and the Poor
ern biology. The institutions under the CSIR,
ICMR, ICAR, DST, and DBT have established a
large number of facilities where most advanced
research work in biosciences is being done. In the
identification of new genes, development of new
drug delivery systems, diagnostics, recombinant
vaccines, computational biology, and many other
related areas, considerable success has been
achieved. Breakthroughs include studies on the
three-dimensional structure of a novel amino
acid, a long protein of mosquito (University of
Poona), and demonstration of the potential of the
reconstituted Sendai viral envelops containing
only the F protein of the virus, as an efficient and
site-specific vehicle for the delivery of reporter
genes into hepatocytes (Delhi University).
of the chemical industry, agriculture, and
medicine. This area of science has little demarcation
between basic and applied research,
and new discoveries and innovations, in most
cases, can find direct application. Innovations,
techniques, and tools that have emerged and
revolutionized modern biotechnology include
genetic engineering, cell fusion technology,
bioprocess technologies, and structure-based
molecular designs including drug development,
drug targeting, and drug delivery systems.
In the 1980s the Government of India considered
the need for creating a separate institutional
framework to strengthen biology and biotechnology
research in the country. Scientific agencies
supporting research in modern biology included:
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR), Department of Science and Technology,
and University Grants Commission. Biotechnology
was given an important boost in 1982 with
the establishment of the National Biotechnology
Board. Its priorities were human resource development,
creation of infrastructure facilities, and
supporting research and development (R&D) in
specific areas. The success and impact of the National
Biotechnology Board prompted the Government
to establish a separate Department of
Biotechnology (DBT) in February 1986. There
have been major accomplishments in areas of
basic research in agriculture, health, environment,
human resource development, industry, safety,
and ethical issues.
Basic research is essential on all aspects of modern
biology including development of the tools
to identify, isolate, and manipulate the individual
genes that govern the specific characters in plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Recombinant DNA
(rDNA) technology is the basis for these new developments.
The creativity of the scientists and
the basic curiosity-driven research will be the keys
to future success. India led through the work of
G.N. Ramachandran, in which he elucidated the
triple helical structure of collagen. The Ramachandran
plot has proven to be fundamental in
solving the protein structure. Areas of biosystematics
using molecular approaches, mathematical
modeling, and genetics including genome sequencing
for human beings, animals, and plants,
will continue to have priority as we move into
the next century. The tremendous impact of genome
sequencing is increasingly evident in many
fields. As an increasing number of new genes are
discovered, short, unique, expressed sequenced
tags segments are used as signatures for gene
identification. The power of high throughput sequencing,
together with rapidly accumulating sequenced
data, are opening new avenues in
biosciences.
In the plant genome area, the sequencing of
Arabidopsis and rice genome will soon be completed
and cataloging and mapping of all the
genes will be done.
There have been major achievements in basic
bioscience in the last decade or so in India, where
we have expertise in practically all areas of mod-
India: Biotechnology Research and Development
Manju Sharma
52 Agricultural Biotechnology and the Poor
ern biology. The institutions under the CSIR,
ICMR, ICAR, DST, and DBT have established a
large number of facilities where most advanced
research work in biosciences is being done. In the
identification of new genes, development of new
drug delivery systems, diagnostics, recombinant
vaccines, computational biology, and many other
related areas, considerable success has been
achieved. Breakthroughs include studies on the
three-dimensional structure of a novel amino
acid, a long protein of mosquito (University of
Poona), and demonstration of the potential of the
reconstituted Sendai viral envelops containing
only the F protein of the virus, as an efficient and
site-specific vehicle for the delivery of reporter
genes into hepatocytes (Delhi University).
Historical Events in Biotechnology
BC
1750The Sumerians brew beer.500 The Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils.
250 The Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize soil fertility.
100 Powdered chrysanthemum is used in China as an insecticide.
AD: Before the 20th Century
1590 The microscope is invented by Janssen.1663 Cells are first described by Hooke.
1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers protozoa and bacteria.
1797 Jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox.
1802 The word "biology" first appears.
1824 Dutrochet discovers that tissue is composed of living cells.
1830 Proteins are discovered.
1833 The cell nucleus is discovered.
The first enzymes are isolated.
1855 The Escherichia coli bacterium is discovered. It later becomes a major research, development, and production tool for biotechnology.
Pasteur begins working with yeast, eventually proving they are living organisms.
1863 Mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits were transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later called genes. His observations lay the groundwork for the field of genetics.
1869 Miescher discovers DNA in the sperm of trout.
1877 A technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by Koch.
1878 The first centrifuge is developed by Laval.
The term "microbe" is first used.
1879 Flemming discovers chromatin, the rod-like structures inside the cell nucleus that later come to be called "chromosomes."
1883 The first rabies vaccine is developed.
1888 The chromosome is discovered by Waldyer.
AD: First Half of the 20th Century
1902 The term "immunology" first appears.1906 The term "genetics" is introduced.
1907 The first in vivo culture of animal cells is reported.
1909 Genes are linked with hereditary disorders.
1911 The first cancer-causing virus is discovered by Rous.
1914 Bacteria are used to treat sewage for the first time in Manchester, England.
1915 Phages, or bacterial viruses, are discovered.
1919 The word "biotechnology" is first used by a Hungarian agricultural engineer.
1920 The human growth hormone is discovered by Evans and Long.
1927 Muller discovers that X-rays cause mutation.
1928 Fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic.
1938 The term "molecular biology" is coined.
1941 The term "genetic engineering" is first used by a Danish microbiologist.
1942 The electron microscope is used to identify and characterize a bacteriophage- a virus that infects bacteria.
1943 Avery demonstrates that DNA is the "transforming factor" and is the material of genes.
1944 DNA is shown to be the material substance of the gene.
1949 Pauling shows that sickle cell anemia is a "molecular disease" resulting from a mutation.
1950 to 1960
1951 McClintock discovers transposable elements, or "jumping genes," in corn.1953 Watson and Crick reveal the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
1954 Cell-culturing techniques are developed.
1955 An enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time.
1956 The fermentation process is perfected in Japan.
Kornberg discovers the enzyme DNA polymerase I, leading to an understanding of how DNA is replicated.
1957 Sickle cell anemia is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid.
1960 Exploiting base pairing, hybrid DNA-RNA molecules are created.
Messenger RNA is discovered.
1961 The genetic code is understood for the first time.
1964 The existence of reverse transcriptase (RT) is predicted.
1967 The first automatic protein sequencer is perfected.
1969 An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first time.
1970s
1970 Specific restriction nucleases are identified, opening the way for gene cloning.RT is discovered independently in murine and avian retroviruses.
1971 RT is shown to have ribonuclease H (Rnase H) activity.
1972 The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.
Purified RT is first used to synthesize cDNA from purified mRNA in vitro.
1973 Cohen and Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment, using bacterial genes.
1974 The National Institute of Health forms a Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to oversee recombinant genetic research.
1975 Colony hybridization and Southern blotting are developed for detecting specific DNA sequences.
The first monoclonal antibodies are produced.
1976 The tools of recombinant DNA are first applied to a human inherited disorder.
Molecular hybridization is used for the prenatal diagnosis of alpha thalassemia.
Yeast genes are expressed in E. coli bacteria.
1977 Genetically engineered bacteria are used to synthesize human growth protein.
1978 North Carolina scientists Hutchinson and Edgell show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.
1979 The first monoclonal antibodies are produced.
1980s
1980 The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approves the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms.The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.
1981 The North Carolina Biotechnology Center is created by the state's General Assembly as the nation's first state-sponsored initiative to develop biotechnology. Thirty-five other states follow with biotechnology centers of various kinds.
The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed.
The first genetically engineered plant is reported.
Mice are successfully cloned.
1982 Humulin, Genentech's human insulin drug produced by genetically engineered bacteria for the treatment of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.
1983 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is conceived. PCR, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments, later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide.
The first genetic transformation of plant cells by TI plasmids is performed.
The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.
The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found.
Efficient methods are developed to synthesize double-stranded DNA from first-strand cDNA involving minimal loss of sequence information.
1984 The DNA fingerprinting technique is developed.
The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.
Chiron clones and sequences the entire genome of the HIV virus.
1985 Fully active murine RT is cloned and overexpressed in E. coli.
1986 The first field tests of genetically engineered plants (tobacco) are conducted.
Ortho Biotech's Orthoclone OKT3, used to fight kidney transplant rejection, is approved as the first monoclonal antibody treatment.
The first biotech-derived interferon drugs for the treatment of cancer, Biogen's Intron A and Genentech's Roferon A, are approved by the FDA. In 1988, the drugs are used to treat Kaposi's sarcoma, a complication of AIDS.
The first genetically engineered human vaccine, Chiron's Recombivax HB, is approved for the prevention of hepatitis B.
1987 Humatrope is developed for treating human growth hormone deficiency.
Advanced Genetic Sciences' Frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that inhibits frost formation on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in California, the first authorized outdoor tests of an engineered bacterium.
Genentech's tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), sold as Activase, is approved as a treatment for heart attacks.
Reverse transcription and PCR are combined to amplify mRNA sequences.
Cloned murine RT is engineered to maintain polymerase and eliminate Rnase H activity.
1988 Congress funds the Human Genome Project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species.
1989 Amgen's Epogen is approved for the treatment of renal disease anemia.
Microorganisms are used to clean up the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
The gene responsible for cystic fibrosis is discovered.
1990s
1990 The first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-yearold girl suffering from an immune disorder.1991 Amgen develops Neupogen, the first of a new class of drugs called colony stimulating factors, for the treatment of low white blood cells in chemotherapy patients.
Immunex's Leukine, used to replenish white blood counts after bone marrow transplants, is approved.
Genzyme's Ceredase is approved for the treatment of Gaucher's disease.
1992 The three-dimensional structure of HIV RT is elucidated.
Recombinate, developed by Genetics Institute and used in the treatment of hemophilia A, becomes the first genetically engineered blood clotting factor approved in the U.S. Chiron's Proleukin is approved for the treatment of renal cell cancer.
1993 Chiron's Betaseron is approved as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.
The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulation.
The Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) is created by merging two smaller trade associations.
1994 Genentech's Nutropin is approved for the treatment of growth hormone deficiency.
The first breast cancer gene is discovered.
Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato, engineered to resist rotting, is approved for sale.
1995 The first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient.
The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed for the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae.
The three-dimensional structure of a catalytically active fragment of murine RT is elucidated.
1996 Biogen's Avonex is approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. The company builds a $50 million plant in Research Triangle Park, N.C., to manufacture the recombinant interferon drug.
Scottish scientists clone identical lambs from early embryonic sheep.
1997 Scottish scientists report cloning a sheep, using DNA from adult sheep cells.
A group of Oregon researchers claims to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.
A new DNA technique combines PCR, DNA chips, and a computer program, providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes.
1998 University of Hawaii scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells.
Human skin is produced in vitro.
Embryonic stem cells are used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases.
The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced.
A rough draft of the human genome map is produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.
Cloned vain RT with fully active polymerase and minimized Rnase H activity is engineered.
The Biotechnology Institute is founded by BIO as an independent national, 501(c)(3) education organization with an independent Board of Trustees.
1999 The complete genetic code of the human chromosome is first deciphered.
The rising tide of public opinion in Europe brings biotech food into the spotlight.
2000 and Beyond
2000 A rough draft of the human genome is completed by Celera Genomics and the Human Genome Project.Pigs are the next animal cloned by researchers, hopefully to help produce organs for human transplant.
"Golden Rice," modified to make vitamin A, promises to help third-world countries alleviate blindness.
The 2.18 million base pairs of the commonest cause of bacterial meningitis, Neisseria meningitidis, are identified.
2001 The sequence of the human genome is published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing treatments.
2002 Scientists complete the draft sequence of the most important pathogen of rice, a fungus that destroys enough rice to feed 60 million people annually. By combining an understanding of the genomes of the fungus and rice, scientists will elucidate the molecular basis of the interactions between the plant and pathogen.
2003 Dolly, the cloned sheep that made headlines in 1997, is euthanized after developing progressive lung disease. Dolly was the first successful clone of a mammal.
Industry Facts
- Biotechnology is a $30 billion a year industry that has produced some 160 drugs and vaccines.
- There are more than 370 biotech drug products and vaccines currently in clinical trials targeting more than 200 diseases, including various cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, AIDS and arthritis.
- Biotechnology is responsible for hundreds of medical diagnostic tests that keep the blood supply safe from the AIDS virus and detect other conditions early enough to be successfully treated. Home pregnancy tests are also biotechnology diagnostic products.
- Genetic engineering is sweeping the world’s farms. Seven million farmers in 18 countries grew genetically engineered crops on 16.72 million acres last year.
- Consumers already are enjoying biotechnology foods such as papaya, soybeans and corn. Hundreds of biopesticides and other agricultural products also are being used to improve our food supply and to reduce our dependence on conventional chemical pesticides.
- Environmental biotechnology products make it possible to clean up hazardous waste more efficiently by harnessing pollution-eating microbes without the use of caustic chemicals.
- Industrial biotechnology applications have led to cleaner processes that produce less waste and use less energy and water in such industrial sectors as chemicals, pulp and paper, textiles, food, energy, and metals and minerals. For example, most laundry detergents produced in the United States contain biotechnology-based enzymes.
- DNA fingerprinting, a biotech process, has dramatically improved criminal investigation and forensic medicine, as well as afforded significant advances in anthropology and wildlife management.
- There are 1,473 biotechnology companies in the United States, of which 314 are publicly held.
- Market capitalization, the total value of publicly traded biotech companies (U.S.) at market prices, was $311 billion as of mid-March 2004.
- The biotechnology industry has mushroomed since 1992, with U.S. revenues increasing from $8 billion in 1992 to $39.2 billion in 2003.
- The U.S. biotechnology industry employed 198,300 people as of Dec. 31, 2003.
- Biotechnology is one of the most research-intensive industries in the world. The U.S. biotech industry spent $17.9 billion on research and development in 2003.
- The top eight biotech companies spent an average of $104,000 per employee on R&D in 2003.
- The biotech industry is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA).
What is Biotechnology?
The definition of biotechnology varies, but a simple definition is the use of organisms by man. One example of biotechnology is cloning. We have been cloning plants for centuries. Each time a leaf is excised from a violet plant and placed in soil to grow a new plant, cloning has occurred. Today, we are not only doing the physical manipulation at the visual level but also on the molecular level. In modern or molecular biotechnology, we physically select the desired characteristic at the molecular level and add it to the organism's genetic makeup.
Biotechnology is the science for this century. With its advances, we are on the first part of a great journey. Humans have expanded their understanding of the biosphere by journeying into space and exploring the depths of the ocean. We have not only been able to look at the surrounding universe and the depths below with the advancement of tools and techniques, but we also have been able to live there. The advancement tools and techniques is now allowing us to look at the universe of atoms. Biotechnology is utilizing the sciences of biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, computers, and information technology to develop tools and products that hold great promise and concern. Humans have always been "manipulating" organisms to their advantage, but now we are able to manipulate life and materials at the atomic level through nanotechnology.
The two schools of thought about what biotechnology is can elicit much debate. Both use organisms to help man. Whereas modern biotechnology manipulates the genes of organisms and inserts them into other organisms to acquire the desired trait, traditional biotechnology uses the processes of organisms, such as fermentation.
Biotechnology is the science for this century. With its advances, we are on the first part of a great journey. Humans have expanded their understanding of the biosphere by journeying into space and exploring the depths of the ocean. We have not only been able to look at the surrounding universe and the depths below with the advancement of tools and techniques, but we also have been able to live there. The advancement tools and techniques is now allowing us to look at the universe of atoms. Biotechnology is utilizing the sciences of biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, computers, and information technology to develop tools and products that hold great promise and concern. Humans have always been "manipulating" organisms to their advantage, but now we are able to manipulate life and materials at the atomic level through nanotechnology.
The two schools of thought about what biotechnology is can elicit much debate. Both use organisms to help man. Whereas modern biotechnology manipulates the genes of organisms and inserts them into other organisms to acquire the desired trait, traditional biotechnology uses the processes of organisms, such as fermentation.
Introduction to "Biotechnology"
Introduction to "Biotechnology"
Biotechnology generally refers to the use of microorganisms to produce certain chemical compounds. Long before the term "biotechnology" was coined for the process of using living organisms to produce improved commodities, people were utilizing living micro-organisms to produce valuable products. A list of early biotechnology applications follows below.| Proving bread with leaven | prehistoric period |
| Fermentation of juices to alcoholic beverages | prehistoric period |
| Knowledge of vinegar formation from fermented juices | prehistoric period |
| Cultivation of vine | before 2000 BC |
| Manufacture of beer in Babylonia and Egypt | 3rd century BC |
| Wine growing promoted by Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Probus | 3rd century AD |
| Production of spirits of wine (ethanol) | 1150 |
| Vinegar manufacturing industry | 14th century |
| Discovery of the fermentation properties of yeast by Erxleben | 1818 |
| Description of lactic acid fermentation by Pasteur | 1857 |
| Detection of fermentation enzymes in yeast by Buchner | 1897 |
| Discovery of penicillin by Fleming | 1928/29 |
| Discovery of many other antibiotics | from about 1945 |
About two decades ago, biotechnology became much more of a science (rather than an art). Regions of DNA (called genes) were found to contain information that would lead to synthesis of specific proteins (which are strings of amino acids). Each of these proteins have their own identity and function; many catalyze (facilitate) chemical reactions, and others are structural components of entities in cells. If one now is able to express a natural gene in simple bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium living in intestines that has become the model organism for much of biotechnology, one can have this bacterium make a lot of the protein coded for by the gene, regardless its source. The techniques used for this development include (a) isolation of the gene coding for a protein of interest, (b) cloning of this gene into an appropriate production host, and (c) improving expression by using better promoters, tighter regulation, etc.; together these techniques are known as recombinant DNA techniques. These will be discussed at some length in the course.
The commercial implications are that a large number of proteins, existing only in tiny quantities in nature, can now be mass-produced if needed. Also, the yields of (bio)chemicals to be produced can be increased much faster than was possible with classical fermentation. These modern biotechnology techniques started with the expression of human genes such as that coding for insulin, but have since been extended to mammalian, microbial, and plant genes. Also, the spectrum of "bioreactors" (organisms used for production) recently has been broadened to include a variety of animals and plants. As we will see, perceived needs and marketability, the researchers' imagination, ethics, and governmental regulations essentially are the major factors in setting the stage and boundaries for developments in biotechnology.
About a decade ago, "protein engineering" became possible as an offshoot of the recombinant DNA technology. Protein engineering differs from "classical" biotechnology in that it is concerned with producing new (man-made) proteins which have been modified or improved in some way. The techniques involved in protein engineering are more complicated than before, and involve (a) various types of mutagenesis (to cause changes in specific locations or regions of a gene to produce a new gene product), (b) expression of the new gene to form a stable protein, (c) characterization of the structure and function of the protein produced, and (d) selection of new locations or regions to modify as a result of this characterization.
In the mid-eighties and early-nineties, it has become possible to transform (genetically modify) plants and animals that are important for food production. "Transgenic" animals and plants, including cows, sheep, tomatoes, tobacco, potato, and cotton have now been obtained. Genes introduced may make the organism more resistant to disease, may influence the rate of fruit ripening, or may increase productivity. As this approach leads to release of genetically altered organisms into the environment, this part of biotechnology is quite strictly regulated at government levels. Recent advances in this area of modern biotechnology are numerous, and some will be highlighted in this course.
Below is an overview of recombinant DNA based biotechnology:
| 1953 | Double helix structure of DNA is first described by Watson and Crick. | |
| 1973 | Cohen and Boyer develop genetic engineering techniques to "cut and paste" DNA and to amplify the new DNA in bacteria. | |
| 1977 | The first human protein (somatostatin) is produced in a bacterium (E. coli). | |
| 1982 | The first recombinant protein (human insulin) appears on the market. | |
| 1983 | Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique conceived. | |
| 1990 | Launch of the Human Genome Project (HGP), an international effort to sequence the human genome. | |
| 1995 | The first genome sequence of an organism (Haemophilus influenzae) is determined. | |
| 2000 | A first draft of the human genome sequence is completed. | |
| 2005 | Over 40 million gene sequences are in GenBank, and genome sequences of hundreds of prokaryotes and dozens of eukaryotes are finished or in draft stage. |